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Sports Nutrition for an Adult Female Endurance Athlete

Course Authors

Lona Sandon, M.Ed., R.D.

Ms. Sandon is Assistant Professor, UT Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX.

Within the past 12 months Ms. Sandon reports no commercial conflicts of interest.

Albert Einstein College of Medicine, CCME staff and interMDnet staff have nothing to disclose.

Estimated course time: 1 hour(s).

Albert Einstein College of Medicine – Montefiore Medical Center designates this enduring material activity for a maximum of 1.0 AMA PRA Category 1 Credit(s)™. Physicians should claim only the credit commensurate with the extent of their participation in the activity.

In support of improving patient care, this activity has been planned and implemented by Albert Einstein College of Medicine-Montefiore Medical Center and InterMDnet. Albert Einstein College of Medicine – Montefiore Medical Center is jointly accredited by the Accreditation Council for Continuing Medical Education (ACCME), the Accreditation Council for Pharmacy Education (ACPE), and the American Nurses Credentialing Center (ANCC), to provide continuing education for the healthcare team.

 
Learning Objectives

Upon completion of this Cyberounds®, you should be able to:

  • Provide general energy intake recommendations for optimizing health and fitness performance

  • Assess appropriateness of body weight for optimizing health and fitness performance

  • Discuss importance of adequate carbohydrate and protein intake for optimal fitness performance

  • Discuss recommendations for adequacy of fluid intake and type of fluid for rehydration.

 

The combined position of the American Dietetic Association (ADA), Dietitians of Canada and the American College of Sports Medicine (ACSM) states that physical performance and exercise recovery can be improved through quality nutrition. Active adults and athletes can improve their physical performance by making appropriate food and fluid intake choices with consideration of timing of intake.(1) In this Cyberounds®, we review the current guidelines for sports nutrition with application to adults participating in moderate endurance events.

Case

Anna is a 5’ 5", 135-pound, 37-year-old female endurance runner and tri-athlete. Her body composition: 23% body fat and 104 pounds fat free mass. She runs, swims or bikes for approximately 60 minutes four times per week at 6:00 AM and does a four- to five-hour training session on Saturdays combining running and biking starting at 8:00 AM. She works in a human resources department and spends most of her day at a desk. She is generally in good health.

Energy requirements are determined by age, height, weight, gender and activity level.

How Many Calories Does Anna Need To Support Her Activity Level?

Meeting energy needs in active individuals is important for the maintenance of appropriate body weight and composition, exercise endurance and recovery, and prevention of injury and illness. Menstrual dysfunction, loss of lean muscle tissue, low bone density and frequent illness may indicate inadequate energy intake. Athletes who do not consume adequate calories may find themselves feeling weak and fatigue more easily. They are also less likely to attain recommended nutrient requirements. Adequate calories help spare muscle protein (PRO) from being used as an energy source and maintain normal body function.(1)

Energy requirements are determined by age, height, weight, gender and activity level. There are two formulas commonly used to estimate energy needs of active individuals: 1) 2002 Dietary Reference Intakes (DRI) for energy and 2) Cunningham equation. Lean body mass of the athlete must be known to use the Cunningham equation.

2002 DRI Estimated Energy Requirement (EER)(1)(2)

Adult Men:
EER = 662 - (9.53 x age in years) + PA* x [(15.91 x weight in kg) + (539.6 x height in meters)]

*PA = physical activity factor.

Adult Women:
EER = 354 - (6.91 x age in years) + PA x [(9.36 x weight in kg) + (726 x height in meters)]



Table 1. PA = Physical Activity Factors.(1)

PA Description of Activity
1.0-1.39 Sedentary - typical activities of daily living
1.4-1.59 Low active - typical activities of daily living and 30-60 minutes of moderate activity equivalent to walking 1.5-3 miles/day
1.6-1.89 Active - typical activities of daily living and 60 minutes of moderate activity equivalent to walking 3-10 miles/day
1.9-2.5 Very active - typical activities of daily living and a minimum of 60 minutes of moderate plus additional 120 minutes of moderate to vigorous activity equivalent to walking 10 or more miles/day

BMI may not be suitable in a highly active, athletic population.

Cunningham Equation(3)

Resting Energy Expenditure (REE) = 500 + (22 x fat free mass in kg)



Case Application

With the information found in the case above, we can calculate Anna’s estimated energy needs using either formula. Keep in mind that the Cunningham formula only estimates resting metabolic needs. An estimate of calories expended during physical activity and activities of daily living would need to be added to estimate total energy requirements. Tables for estimating calories expending during activity can be found here: http://prevention.sph.sc.edu/tools/docs/documents_compendium.pdf.(4)

Cunningham Equation

Resting Energy Expenditure (REE) = 500 + (22 x 47.3 kg) = 1540

Total Daily Energy Expenditure (TDEE) = REE + NTEE + PAE

Non-training energy expenditure (NTEE) = activity factor x REE
Light activity = REE x 0.3
Moderate activity = REE x 0.4
Heavy activity = REE x 0.5

Physical Activity Expenditure (PAE) = kcal/min x min of activity
NTEE = 1540 x 0.3 (for light daily activity) = 462
PAE = 10 kcal/kg/hr (cycling at 15 mph) x 61.4 kg = 614 kcal/hr
TDEE = 1540 + 462 + 614 = 2616 kcal
Or
DRI EER = 354 - (6.91 x 37) + 1.6 x [(9.36 x 61.4kg) + (726 x 1.65)] = 2935 Total Daily Calorie Needs

The Cunningham estimate above is based on a typical weekday with a 60-minute training session. Additional calories would be required for Anna’s longer training day to meet an estimated need of 4460 calories. Using the DRI EER estimate, with an activity factor of 1.6 for active, we would estimate her daily calorie needs at 2935. An average daily intake of 2935 calories would likely meet Anna’s energy requirements averaged across seven days. Body weight and composition can be monitored to assess adequacy of calorie intake.

Is Anna At An Appropriate Weight?

Although body mass index (BMI) is a widely accepted method for assessing appropriateness of body weight in the general population, it may not be suitable in a highly active, athletic population. BMI is not a measure of body composition and body composition must be considered in assessing weight status in athletes. A high percentage of lean body mass may result in a higher BMI, indicating an athlete is overweight or obese, when in fact they are quite lean. Lean mass is associated with greater power, speed, endurance and desirable appearance.

Adequate muscle glycogen repletion best achieved with moderate to high carbohydrate diet.

Body composition will vary by individual, type of sport and age of the athlete. Some body fat is necessary for optimal health and physical performance. The minimum amount of body fat for health is 12% for women and 5% for men.(1)(3) Healthy body fat ranges are listed in Table 2. It is important to remind active adults and athletes that restricting calories or overtraining to achieve a minimally acceptable percent body fat is not necessarily desirable. Attempting to be leaner may actually hinder physical performance. Body fat serves as a source of energy in endurance training, protects organs and produces sex hormones. Very low body fat has been associated with low levels of estrogen and development of amenorrhea and osteoporosis, known as the Female Athlete Triad (FAT). Energy restriction is believed to be the primary cause of these symptoms, not the low level of body fat itself.(3) The FAT is discussed in depth in the ACSM 2007 position stand, The Female Athlete Triad.

Table 2. Healthy Body Fat Ranges For Physically Active Adults.(3)

  % Body Fat
Age Women Men
<55 16-28 5-15
>55 20-33 7-18



Case Application

In Anna’s case, she may be considered overweight for her height using usual ideal body weight formulas and charts. However, her BMI of 22.5 puts her at normal weight classification. Also her 23% body fat places her in the middle of the range for healthy body fat for physically active adults. She should be encouraged to continue to maintain her weight and body composition as is.

What Type Of Calories Should Anna Be Eating To Support Her Physical Activity Level?

The type of calories an active adult needs is determined by their training level and sport. Most athletes can obtain sufficient calories and nutrients by following the recommendations of the Dietary Guidelines at a calorie level matched to their physical activity level.(1) Anna is an endurance athlete and therefore relies mostly on the aerobic energy production system. This energy system primarily uses muscle glycogen and fatty acids to fuel endurance activity. Other energy systems are listed in Table 3. Because she trains five times per week, it is important to adequately replenish muscle glycogen stores on a daily basis to maintain a high level of performance and spare muscle PRO as a source of energy. It has been well established in the research literature that adequate muscle glycogen repletion can be best achieved with the consumption of a moderate to high carbohydrate (CHO) diet, as compared to a high fat diet or low CHO diet.

The timing of CHO impacts exercise performance.

Table 3. Main Energy Production Systems Used During Physical Activity.(5)

Energy System Fuel Type Used Activity Type
Aerobic Mixture of fat and CHO stores. CHO is the primary source used at moderate to high intensities.

Fat is used at low to moderate intensities.

Some protein.
Running, biking, swimming
Glycolysis - Lactic acid system (Anaerobic) CHO is only source of fuel. High intensity running, biking, sprinting, intermittent sports (volleyball, basketball), weight lifting
Phosphogen - ATP-CP system

(Anaerobic)
ATP Weight lifting, jumping, 10-second sprints

How Much Carbohydrate Does Anna Need?

The research literature has long recognized the importance of CHO in enhancing exercise performance. Energy production during endurance exercise relies on existing glycogen and fat stores. At intensities lower than 65% maximal oxygen consumption (VO2max), fat provides the greatest energy contribution, while CHO is used in greater proportion at higher intensities. Adequate CHO availability is essential for preventing fatigue during prolonged endurance exercise even at lower intensities.(6) It is recommended that CHO requirements be based on body weight and training condition, as shown in Table 4.(1)

Table 4. CHO Recommendations.(6)(7)

Training condition Recommendations
1-4 hours before event 1.0- 4.0 g/kg
General training for endurance events 6.0-7.0 g/kg/day
Endurance training and competition 7.0-10.0 g/kg/day
During endurance events lasting >60 min 30-60 g/hour or 0.7 g/kg
High-intensity events 5.0-8.0 g/kg/day
Recovery for athletes who train or compete hard for >90 min/day 1.5 g/kg immediately after exercise

Additional 1.5 g/kg 2 hours post exercise
Recreational activities 5.0-6.0 g/kg/day

The timing of CHO impacts exercise performance. Some studies have found that consuming a pre-exercise meal rich in CHO two to four hours prior to exercise is beneficial.(6)(9) Amounts believed to enhance performance are 4.5 g/kg of CHO four hours prior to exercise and 1 g/kg of CHO 30-60 minutes prior to exercise. The closer to exercise the meal is consumed, researchers recommend less CHO and a smaller meal to prevent gastrointestinal discomfort.(8)(9) A pre-exercise snack is typically encouraged if it has been more than four hours since the last meal. The pre-exercise snack serves to top off glycogen stores, plasma glucose and prevent hunger during activity.(1)(6) General recommendations include easily digestible foods low in fat and fiber.(1)

Calories and CHOs are key to sparing the use of amino acids as an energy source.

The glycemic index of a food does not appear to affect performance; athletes may, however, find these foods more tolerable immediately prior to exercise. Many athletes find liquid meals such as Boost, Carnation Instant Breakfast or a glass of flavored milk convenient and easy to digest within an hour before exercise, dependent on activity and tolerance of lactose. A liquid meal will also help boost fluid intake.(6)

CHO consumption during exercise lasting more than one hour improves performance in both endurance and stop-and-go sports such as basketball or volleyball. CHO consumption during extended physical activity delays the onset of fatigue and maintains blood glucose at higher levels. The recommendation is to consume 30-60 g of CHO each hour of exercise to enhance performance.(6) CHO in the form of a sports drink is easily digestible and often most practical during endurance events. It will also provide needed fluid. Some athletes may find it difficult to drink enough fluid to provide sufficient CHO. Sports bars, salty snack crackers, gels or gummies may be needed. Athletes should be encouraged to try different options during training for tolerability.

Case Application

Anna’s frequency of training requires adequate glycogen repletion on a daily basis to prevent fatigue and PRO use for energy. Weekday training needs will be different from weekend requirements. To meet weekday training needs, 6 g to 7 g/kg of CHO is recommended. Given that weekday training sessions are only an hour, she does not need CHO during training if adequate CHO is consumed pre- and post-training. She will need 7 g -10 g/kg of CHO for long training sessions on Saturdays with CHO intake recommended during training.

Total recommended weekday CHO intake = 61.4 kg x 6-7 g/kg = 368 g to 430 g CHO per day

Pre-exercise meal at 5:00 AM = 61.4 kg x 1 g/kg = ~62 g CHO
Post-exercise recovery meal = 61.4 kg x 1.5 g/kg = 92 g CHO
Remaining total CHO spread throughout the day in regular meals and snacks
Total recommended weekend CHO intake = 61.4 kg x 7-10 g/kg = 430 g to 614 g CHO per day
Pre-exercise meal CHO at 7:00 AM = 61.4 kg x 1 g/kg = ~62 g CHO
During exercise CHO = 61.4 kg x 0.7 g/kg/hr = 43 g CHO/hr
Post-exercise meal CHO = 61.4 kg x 1.5 g/kg = 92 g CHO
Remaining total CHO spread throughout the day in regular meals and snacks
Downloadable handouts for patients/clients:

Tips for Eating Before Exercise
http://www.scandpg.org/local/resources/files/2009/SD-USA_Fact_Sheet_Eating_Before_Exercise_Apr09.pdf

Tips for Eating During Exercise
http://www.scandpg.org/local/resources/files/2009/SD-USA_Fact_Sheet_Eating_During_Exercise_Apr09.pdf

Tips for Eating for Recovery
http://www.scandpg.org/local/resources/files/2009/SD-USA_Fact_Sheet_Eating_for_Recovery_Apr09.pdf

How Much Protein Does Anna Need?

Both endurance and resistance training are believed to increase PRO needs above the current Dietary Reference Intake (DRI) of 0.8 g/kg.(1) Adequacy of total energy and CHO intake impact PRO needs. Calories and CHOs are key to sparing the use of amino acids as an energy source, allowing PRO to be used for muscle anabolism and body functions.(1)(3) PRO oxidation is increased as a result of endurance exercise and may account for 2% to 6% of energy expenditure.(10) Despite evidence that shows PRO turnover is more efficient in endurance trained athletes, intake recommendations range from 1.2 to 1.4 g/kg/day for maintaining nitrogen balance. Athletes who restrict calories, follow a vegetarian diet, consume limited CHO and train on consecutive days for long hours have increased needs for PRO for normal tissue repair and body functions, and should aim for the upper level of the recommended PRO intake. No benefit has been found for consuming PRO above 2 g/kg/day.(1)(10) See PRO recommendations in Table 5.

Table 5. PRO Recommendations.

Training condition Recommendations g/kg/day
Sedentary adult 0.8
Recreational exerciser - adult 1.0-1.5
Growing teenage athlete 1.8-2.0
Endurance athlete - adult 1.2-1.4
Strength athlete - adult 1.6-1.7
Immediately before strength training 0.1 g/kg
Immediately after strength training 0.1 g/kg

The timing of PRO intake in relation to exercise impacts recovery and strength gains. PRO consumption immediately before and after exercise has been shown to enhance muscle PRO synthesis and muscle repair. As little as 10 g or 0.1 g/kg of PRO intake immediately following exercise increases net PRO balance in endurance and resistance athletes. High quality PRO containing essential amino acids is superior to providing non-essential amino acids. PRO consumption post-exercise may also help to restore glycogen levels when CHO or calorie intake is insufficient.(10)

Some evidence suggests that PRO intake immediately prior to exercise can enhance muscle recovery by maintaining a positive PRO balance during exercise; this leads to a higher PRO balance post-exercise when compared to consumption of PRO immediately following exercise.(10) PRO ingestion during exercise has not been shown to improve performance. Although two studies showed positive results of PRO intake during exercise, they have been criticized for their design.(11) At this time, there is insufficient evidence to recommend PRO intake during exercise.(11) Athletes should be advised to consume adequate PRO throughout the day and after exercise for recovery and muscle mass gains.

Leucine has been shown to stimulate muscle PRO synthesis.

Most athletes consume adequate amounts of PRO due to higher calorie intakes and therefore supplemental PRO is not needed.(10) A thorough dietary analysis should be conducted prior to making recommendations for PRO supplementation. The use of amino acid or powdered PRO supplements have not been shown to be more beneficial than intact, high quality PRO food sources when adequate energy is consumed.(1) Both soy and milk-based PROs (whey, casein) have been studied for their potential muscle PRO synthesis effects. The current research literature suggests that consumption of whey PRO from dairy milk is superior to that of soy for stimulation of muscle anabolism.(12) Whey PRO is absorbed more rapidly into the blood stream and is a concentrated source of leucine, a branched chain amino acid that plays a role in muscle anabolism. Leucine has been shown to stimulate muscle PRO synthesis.(12)

Case Application

Total recommend daily PRO intake = 61.4 x 1.2-1.4 g/kg = 74 g to 86 g of PRO

Post-exercise meal = 61.4 x 0.1 g/kg = 6 g PRO

Remaining PRO intake spread throughout regular meals and snacks

Athletes’ diets may vary significantly in the amount of energy coming from fat. Individualized recommendations should be based on activity level, energy needs, age and food likes or dislikes. General recommendations are to consume 20-35% of calories from fat and choose mainly poly- and monounsaturated fat sources. Dietary fat should not be restricted. Very low fat diets have been associated with inadequate calorie consumption, nutrient deficiencies and hormone dysfunction. Fat serves as an important energy source particularly during endurance training and is also necessary for absorption of fat-soluble vitamins. A well trained athlete will utilize fatty acids more effectively than a non-trained individual.(3)

How Much Fluid Does Anna Need?

The DRI for adequate intake of fluid for adult males is 16 cups per day and 12 cups per day for adult females. Active adults and athletes may need more. Daily fluid needs may be met from a variety of sources including water, milk, 100% fruit juice, coffee, tea, soup, sports drinks or high water containing fruits and vegetables.(13) Moderate consumption of caffeinated beverages, <180 mg/dL, has little effect on urine output and risk of dehydration in athletes. However, alcohol can increase urine output and it is not advised to consume it post-exercise when rehydration is important,(10) despite what is commonly seen in advertisements and in practice at charity-based and sanctioned endurance events.

Endurance athletes should be encouraged to have a fluid replacement plan to prevent dehydration and monitor their hydration status. As little as a 2% loss of body weight due to dehydration impairs both physical and mental performance. Dehydration can cause increased heart rate, core body temperature and perceived rate of exertion. Fluid needs and losses are dependent on gender, body weight, temperature, humidity, duration and intensity of exercise, heat acclimatization and metabolic efficiency. Women tend to have less sweat and electrolyte losses than men but are at greater risk of hyponatremia.(14) Athletes can be taught to monitor their hydration status by weighing themselves before and after training and paying attention to volume and color of their urine. Scant, dark urine output indicates dehydration.(13)

Regular fluid intake before, during and after exercise helps regulate body temperature and prevent fatigue. The choice of beverage for rehydration depends on duration of exercise, climate, sweat rate and composition, and taste preference. Plain water is appropriate for exercise lasting less than 90 minutes in controlled temperature environments. Specially formulated sports drinks are necessary for extended exercise duration, hot humid climates, high sweat rates and salt losers, and for those who will not adequately replace fluids with water alone due to lack of taste. Sports drinks replace CHO and fluid and electrolytes lost in sweat.(14) Sports drinks formulated with 14 g to 19 g of CHO per cup are best for rapid absorption. Heavy sweaters and high salt losers may need to add additional salt or choose higher salt-containing endurance formulas.(13)

The American College of Sports Medicine (ACSM) provides guidelines for fluid intake before, during and after exercise. Pre-exercise fluid recommendations are to consume 5 to 7 ml/kg four hours prior to exercise. This allows for adequate time for absorption and urine output prior to the start of exercise. The athlete should be in a euhydrated state prior to the start of exercise. Consuming beverages with meals and choosing beverages with a small amount of sodium such as milk, and eating foods with sodium can help retain fluid in the body. Fluid and electrolyte losses during exercise are highly variable. The amount of fluid replacement depends on sweat rate, exercise duration and accessibility to fluids during exercise. The ACSM recommendation is to calculate individual sweat rates under typical training and competition conditions.(14) Sweat rate can be determined using the formula below.

Sweat Rate = (Pre-exercise weight - post exercise weight) x 16+ oz. of fluid consumed during exercise

During prolonged exercise, fluids should be consumed early before symptoms of dehydration appear. Beverages containing CHOs and electrolytes are recommended for maintaining fluid balance. CHOs provide energy and maintain plasma glucose levels. Sodium stimulates thirst and desire to drink more in addition to encouraging fluid absorption and retention. Following exercise, the athlete should consume 2 -3 cups of fluid for each pound lost during exercise.(14) Athletes are more likely to voluntarily replace fluid losses when beverages are cold, flavored and sweetened.(13)

Table 6. General Fluid Recommendations.(13)

Before exercise Drink fluids with meals
2 cups - 2 hours before exercise
1-2 cups - 15 minutes before exercise
During exercise ~1 cup every 15-20 minutes
After exercise 3 cups per pound of body weight lost during exercise



Case Application

Sweat rate = (1.5 pounds) x 16 oz./pound + 16 oz. consumed = 40 oz. or 5 cups per hour Anna typically loses 1½ pounds, representing a 1% weight loss, during a one-hour training session and drinks 16 ounces of a sports drink or water. Her sweat rate is a loss of 40 ounces or 5 cups of fluid per hour. She typically only replaces 2 cups of fluid losses during training. On a weekday training day, she can make up for fluid losses by drinking 4.5 to 5 cups of fluid post training plus additional normal daily fluid intake.

For weekend training sessions, it is important for Anna to minimize fluid losses for extended endurance training. If she maintains her typical fluid intake, she can expect approximately a 4% weight loss from fluid losses and diminished physical performance. Aiming for a goal of drinking 10 ounces of a sports drink every 15 minutes would be ideal but can be difficult for practical reasons and physical discomfort of high volume fluid intake.

A goal of 8 ounces of a sports drink every 15 minutes may be more reasonable and tolerable, allowing for only a 2-pound, 1.5%, weight loss over the training period. This amount will also meet the recommendation for 30 g - 60 g of CHO per hour. An additional 6 cups of fluid would be needed for optimal hydration recovery post training.

Downloadable handout for patients/clients:

Tips for Exercise Hydration
http://www.scandpg.org/local/resources/files/2009/SD-USA_Fact_Sheet_Exercise_Hydration_Apr09.pdf

Scant, dark urine output indicates dehydration.

What Should Anna Eat for Recovery After Training?

The purpose of a post-exercise snack or meal is to replenish fluid losses, muscle glycogen stores and provide amino acids for muscle repair. The timing of the recovery meal can be critical for athletes who train intensely on consecutive days or twice a day. Consuming CHO within 30 minutes of training results in greater muscle glycogen synthesis when compared to delayed CHO intake. Timing is not as critical for athletes with a rest day between intense workouts if they are meeting their daily CHO goals. A post-exercise snack, however, can help meet daily CHO needs. Protein intake closely following training also positively impacts protein balance for maintenance and repair of skeletal muscle.(6)

Low-fat chocolate milk has been studied as a post-exercise recovery and rehydration beverage. It provides CHO similar in type and amount to commercially formulated recovery beverages, essential and branched chain amino acids, and is a natural source of sodium and potassium lost in sweat. Milk has been shown in multiple studies to acutely increase muscle PRO synthesis and lead to lean mass gains when consumed after exercise.(15) The ratio of casein to whey protein allows for a prolonged elevation of plasma amino acid levels producing a positive net protein balance and increased muscle protein synthesis. Whey protein is also a source of the branched chain amino acid leucine, which plays a role in promoting muscle anabolism.(12) In addition, Cockburn and colleagues found that a milk-based PRO may decrease muscle damage when consumed immediately following exercise.(16)

Chocolate milk may help replenish muscle glycogen following glycogen-depleting exercise. In one study, participants consumed either chocolate milk or a commercial recovery beverage following glycogen-depleting exercise. Four hours later they performed a cycling trial to exhaustion. Those who consumed chocolate milk performed equally as well as those who drank the commercial beverage.(15) Milk’s naturally occurring sodium and potassium may also help return an endurance athlete to normal fluid status. Shirreffs and others, as described by Cockburn et al., compared the effectiveness of low-fat milk, low-fat milk with added salt, a sports drink and water for normalizing fluid balance after exercise with sweat losses of 1.8% of body weight. After a 4-hour recovery period, those who consumed the low-fat milk or low-fat milk with added salt had less urine output and were in a state of positive fluid balance. Those who consumed the sports drink or water had greater urine output and remained in a negative fluid balance state at 4 hours.(16) This research suggests that milk is a promising recovery and rehydration alternative to commercially prepared beverages. In addition to the described benefits, milk provides calcium, vitamin D and B vitamins not found in sports drinks and, therefore, may aid in meeting nutritional needs when used as a recovery drink.

Does Anna Need a Vitamin/mineral Supplement?

Frequent moderate to high intensity exercise may increase the need for certain vitamins and minerals. Because of higher calorie intakes, athletes typically meet these needs without additional supplementation. Athletes, however, who restrict calories, are vegan or follow restrictive diets may be at risk of inadequate intake and may benefit from a supplement to correct deficiencies. Vitamin and mineral supplementation has not been shown to improve physical performance when adequate calorie and nutrient requirements have been met through whole food sources.(1)

Vitamins and minerals of greatest concern for athletes are similar to that of the general population and include calcium, vitamin D, B vitamins, iron, zinc and magnesium. Poor calcium and vitamin D intakes may manifest in stress fractures and low bone mineral density and possible muscle pain. Poor iron intake affects oxygen carrying capacity, thus impacting work capacity and endurance. Inadequate zinc can affect muscle strength and endurance, immune system and cardiorespiratory functioning. Low magnesium can impair endurance capacity. These nutrients can be obtained in adequate amounts through a balanced diet rich in fruits, vegetables, whole grains, nuts and seeds, low fat dairy and lean protein sources. Nutrient rich food sources should be encouraged over supplementation.(1)

Many athletes believe that antioxidant vitamin supplements such as vitamin C and E may aid in recovery from damaging free radicals produced during exercise and decrease muscle damage. Although exercise increases production of free radicals, habitual training strengthens the body’s ability to manage free radicals and attenuate their effects.(17) Endurance athletes may have a higher need for vitamins C and E but their effect on performance or reduction of inflammation and muscle soreness remains unclear.(1)(17)(18)

A recent (2010) study by Bailey et al. supplemented subjects for six weeks with a combination of vitamins C and E and compared results to a control group receiving a placebo. After six weeks of supplementation, subjects performed 90 minutes of strenuous activity. Results of oxidative and inflammatory markers and muscle recovery measures indicated that supplementation did not improve muscle recovery nor reduce oxidative stress or inflammation compared to the control group.(18) A review of the literature by Urso and Clarkson shows that others have found evidence to recommend vitamin C intakes between 100 mg to 500 mg per day for endurance and ultra-endurance athletes in earlier studies.(17) These levels can be met with consumption of fruits, vegetables and 100% juices. Athletes who choose to take antioxidant supplements should not take more than the Tolerable Upper Intake level (UL). The UL for vitamins C and E are 2000 mg and 1000 mg respectively.(19)

Case Application

Anna should meet with a registered dietitian for a complete dietary analysis to determine nutrient intake deficiencies if any. If deficiencies are determined, an individualized plan to increase nutrient intake from food sources should be developed and appropriate supplements recommended if warranted.

Chocolate milk may help replenish muscle glycogen.

Summary

Nutrition plays an important role in preparing the body for optimal physical performance during sports activities. Meeting energy demands is essential for preventing fatigue during training, while maintaining an appropriate body weight and body composition for peak performance. CHO intake plays a key role in the prevention of fatigue during exercise and in the replacement of glycogen stores in exercise recovery.

Together adequate energy and CHO intake spare protein, allowing it to be used for muscle repair, protein synthesis and body functions. It is believed that endurance and strength athletes require protein levels higher than the current RDA to maintain protein balance and promote muscle protein synthesis. There is no benefit, however, to protein intake in excess of 2 g/kg.

In addition to meeting macronutrient requirements, proper hydration is essential. Endurance athlete must replace fluid and electrolytes lost in sweat. The position of the American Dietetic Association and American College of Sports Medicine recommend the consumption of sports drinks for rehydration during and after endurance exercise or exercise in hot humid conditions.

Recent research supports the use of flavored milk as a recovery beverage. Milk’s nutrient profile makes it almost an ideal beverage for CHO repletion, promotion of muscle protein synthesis, and fluid and electrolyte replacement. In addition, milk consumption can boost intake of nutrients of concern such as vitamin D and calcium. Athletes generally do not need additional vitamin and mineral supplementation if adequate calories and a varied diet are consumed. There is some evidence to suggest higher intakes of vitamin C and E may be beneficial for exercise recovery. A nutrient rich diet should be encouraged over reliance on supplements to meet nutritional needs.

Sports Nutrition Web Resources

American College of Sports Medicine Position Papers
http://journals.lww.com/acsm-msse/pages/collectiondetails.aspx?TopicalCollectionId=1

American Dietetic Association, Dietitians of Canada, and American College of Sports Medicine - Nutrition and Athletic Performance
http://www.eatright.org/About/Content.aspx?id=8365

Australian Institute of Sport - Nutrition http://www.ausport.gov.au/ais/nutrition

Gatorade Sports Science Institute - Sports Nutrition http://gssiweb.com/Article_List.aspx?topicid=2

Sports, Cardiovascular, and Wellness Nutrition Dietetics Practice Group - Sports Nutrition Fact Sheets http://www.scandpg.org/sports-nutrition/sports-nutrition-fact-sheets/

Sports Dietitians Australia - Fact Sheets http://www.sportsdietitians.com.au/factsheets/

United States Anti-doping Agency http://www.usantidoping.org/


Footnotes

1American Dietetic Association. Position of the American Dietetic Association, Dietitians of Canada, and the American College of Sports Medicine: Nutrition and athletic performance. J Am Diet Assoc. 2009;109:509-527.
2Institute of Medicine, Food and Nutrition Board. Dietary Reference Intakes for Energy, Carbohydrate, Fiber, Fat, Fatty Acids, Cholesterol, Protein, and Amino Acids. Washington, DC: National Academies Press; 2005.
3Thomas LM. Energy balance and weight management. In: Dunford M, ed. Sports Nutrition: A Practice Manual for Professionals, 4th ed. American Dietetic Association; 2006.
4Ainsworth BE. The compendium of physical activities tracking guide. January 2002. Prevention Research Center, Norman J. Arnold School of Public Health, University of South Carolina. Available at: http://prevention.sph.sc.edu/tools/docs/documents_compendium.pdf. Accessed November 17, 2010.
5Schoonen JC and Holbrook L. Physiology of anaerobic and aerobic exercise. In: Dunford M, ed. Sports Nutrition: A Practice Manual for Professionals, 4th ed. American Dietetic Association; 2006.
6Coleman EJ. Carbohydrate and exercise. In: Dunford M, ed. Sports Nutrition: A Practice Manual for Professionals, 4th ed. American Dietetic Association; 2006.
7Clark N. Nancy Clark’s Sports Nutrition Guidebook, 3rd ed. 2003. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.
8Neufer PD, Costill DL, Flynn MG, Kirwan JP, Mitchell JB, Houmard J. Improvements in exercise performance: effects of carbohydrate feedings and diet. J Appl Physiol. 1983;55:230-235.
9Sherman WM, Peden MC, Wright DA. Carbohydrate feedings 1 hour before exercise improves cycling performance. Am J Clin Nutr. 1991;54:866-870.
10Gibala MJ and Howarth KR. Protein and exercise. In: Dunford M, ed. Sports Nutrition: A Practice Manual for Professionals, 4th ed. American Dietetic Association; 2006.
11Gibala MJ. Protein nutrition and endurance exercise: What does science say? Gatorade Sports Science Institute. 2008. Available at: http://gssiweb.com/Article_Detail.aspx?articleid=719&level=2&topic=8. Accessed November 26, 2010.
12Philips SM. The science of muscle hypertrophy: making dietary protein count. Proceedings of the Nutrition Society. Published online by Cambridge University Press, Nov. 22, 2010. doi: 10.1017/S002966511000399X
13Murray B. Fluid, electrolytes, and exercise. In: Dunford M, ed. Sports Nutrition: A Practice Manual for Professionals, 4th ed. American Dietetic Association; 2006.
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